The Seminole Wars, although not as well known as the other wars in which the United States participated in the 19th century, were a significant development of the Indian Removal Wars. Conflicts between British, American, Spanish, and Seminole participants date back to the 18th century, but the most coordinated fighting took place between the Napoleonic Wars and the American Civil War. The Seminole Wars stood out among the various American wars of expansion due to their brutality and the practice of slavery in contested areas throughout the conflict.
Understand
[edit]History
[edit]Florida's pre-Columbian indigenous tribes, similar to their counterparts in the Caribbean, were decimated by the first wave of Spanish colonization during the 16th and 17th century due to disease exposure. By 1700, the Florida Peninsula had been depopulated, and various groups settled the area including the Creek tribe and various runaways from other native tribes, local fisherman and ranchers, and former slaves. Governor Manuel de Montiano founded Fort Mose for free Blacks and former slaves, but after the Spanish pulled out of Florida in 1763, this settlement collapsed and Black Floridians had the choice of moving to Cuba or joining the Seminole tribe.
A group of American colonial settlers began moving into Florida and came into conflict with various local European colonial powers (particularly the Spanish and British) and the Seminoles. However, Spanish presence in St. Augustine prevented outright conflict until that country's imperial possessions collapsed during Napoleon's invasion of peninsular Spain. The United States, which was keen to gain access to the Gulf of Mexico for trade, took advantage of war between the colonial powers and American settler uprisings to temporarily occupy West Florida. However, despite militia attempts to take control of East Florida, the U.S., which was in a separate war against the British, decided to avoid an open war with the Spanish. The consequence was a power vacuum in Florida, with American settlers, Spanish governors, and the Seminoles all competing for territory. General Andrew Jackson sent a mixed military and militia expedition to build a power base at Fort Gadsden for incursions into Seminole settlements and ultimately, a weakened Spain agreed to hand over control of Florida to the U.S. Jackson's raids on Seminole villages prior to the annexation of Florida from Spain are known as the First Seminole War.
Although the U.S. controlled Florida, it wielded little political power. In 1823, U.S. officials negotiated a land-sharing agreement with the Seminoles at Moultrie Creek which gave the Seminoles Inland Florida and promised substantial American investment as long as the tribe remained loyal. However, the process of moving inland took time, the challenges of creating new farms in the forest proved devastating for the Seminoles, and following a brief period of relative peace General Jackson was elected U.S. president. He opposed autonomy for the Seminole population and passed the Indian Removal Act in 1830, forcing the tribe to move once again, this time west of the Mississippi River, in what is known as the Trail of Tears. Most Seminoles resisted the Act and war began in late December 1835 when American reinforcements to Fort King were defeated decisively in the first battle of the Second Seminole War. Unlike the first conflict, the second war was a total war. Slave plantations, sugar mills, and lighthouses that marked the beginning of American colonial settlement in the state were subjected to Seminole attacks, and American troops largely pulled out of the state. A desperate attempt by Major Putnam to bring Bulow Plantation under military control failed when the Seminoles captured and burned the site in early 1836. Another, larger force of American troops was defeated in Wahoo Swamp in November of the same year.
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However, by the end of 1836, the war was beginning to shift in the United States' favor. Major General Thomas Jesup took command of the U.S.'s forces and brought 9,000 American troops into the conflict with plans to wage a long war, which he defined as a race war against Black Seminoles. Although his forces defeated several Seminole leaders in 1837, holdouts remained and they continued to notch victories against American troops. The war became one of attrition, and the U.S. and Seminole sides came to an informal agreement in 1841 and 1842: the remaining undefeated Seminole villages could live in peace in southwestern Florida and Americans would be able to settle the northern part of the state. The war came at great cost to the U.S., with tens of millions of dollars spent and more than a thousand American soldiers dead from conflict and disease out of 40,000 sent to Florida during the war. The Seminole tribe was decimated and only a few hundred members remained in the southwest of the state. Most Seminoles and tribal leaders were either imprisoned, killed, or relocated to the Seminole Reservation in modern Oklahoma.
The Third Seminole War, waged in the mid 1850s, consisted for the most part of minor skirmishes in what was a lopsided conflict. The U.S. established a line of forts on the frontier of the Everglades and pushed the remaining tribal factions deep into the swamp with the goal of forcing them to surrender due to lack of supplies. A few tribal bands did surrender and agree to move, but for the most part, the Seminoles were able to avoid contact with troops by remaining in remote and unsettlable areas. The Seminoles avoided involvement in the American Civil War and did not integrate into the state's population until the federal government projects of the New Deal. Differences of opinion on integration into Florida life ultimately led the Seminoles to split into multiple reservations including the Seminole Tribe of Florida near Lake Okeechobee and the Miccosukee Tribe in the Everglades. The Big Cypress Seminole Indian Reservation has in modern times opened a visitor center and museum for visitors detailing the history of the Seminoles.
Further reading
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For further reading, look for The Seminole Wars: America's Longest Indian Conflict by John and Mary Lou Missall. The book is written as a historical narrative and isn't too dense while also providing a detailed timeline and maps of forts and troop movements. There are a couple documentaries about the Seminoles, such as PBS' The Unconquered Seminoles, which focuses on their life in the Everglades, and The Seminole War, created by the Historical Society of Palm Beach County.
The book Bartram's Travels, written by explorer and naturalist William Bartram and published before the Seminole Wars, documented the lifestyle of Native Americans across the Southeastern U.S., including the Alachula Seminole of Payne's Prairie.
Prepare
[edit]Many of the historic sites, such as battlefields and plantation ruins, are outdoors. Hence, the best time to visit is outside the hot, humid season when the UV index is high. On both coasts, where forts and museums are found, the hurricane season poses the greatest risk to travel from August to October. All regions, but particuarly the Gulf coast (including the Panhandle) are frequently subjected to hurricanes and tropical storms, while severe thunderstorms are common throughout the state between June and October. The best time to visit outdoor sites is winter or early spring, when it is warm in the southern part of the state and cool to mild in the northern peninsula and Panhandle.
Most historic sites and museums are either free or charge low entrance fees (usually for parking rather than admission, per se). About half of the ruins are preserved as state historic parks and charge the small parking fee, while the rest are either federally-run or city-run parks. City parks are typically free and open to the public for longer hours than state and federal parks. Check park websites, particularly of state and federal parks, before visiting, as historic sites frequently close partally or fully for maintenance after storms.
Destinations
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Historic sites
[edit]- 1 Bulow Plantation Ruins, 3501 Old Kings Rd, Flagler Beach, ☏ +1 386 517-2084. Th-M 9AM-5PM. The plantation was owned by Major Charles Bulow from 1821 until its destruction in the Second Seminole War. A visitor center on site includes historical details about the plantation. Bulow Creek can be accessed for canoeing from the park, as can a hiking trail which is 7 mi (11 km) in length. $4 per vehicle.
- 2 Burnsed Blockhouse (Heritage Park), S Lowder St, Macclenny. 7AM-9PM. The construction of the house was ordered by President Jackson in 1837 due to its location as a vantage point above the St. Marys River, which was inhabited by Seminoles. However, as the house was never occupied by the military, it did not come under attack. It is the only surviving log blockhouse in Florida, having been restored in 2007 and relocated to Heritage Park in Macclenny. Several buildings from the late 19th and early 20th centuries are also within the park, including an old jail, train depot, and trading post.
- 3 Cape Florida Light, 1200 S Crandon Blvd, Key Biscayne, ☏ +1 786 582-2673. 8AM-sunset. This lighthouse was built in 1825 and was the location of a skirmish between Seminoles and the lighthouse's keepers in July 1836. The Seminoles took control of Key Biscayne, burned the lighthouse, and shot both of the keepers on duty, although one survived and was rescued by the naval schooner Motto. The lighthouse was restored after the Second Seminole War in 1846 and is now part of Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park. $8 per vehicle.
- 4 Castillo de San Marcos (Fort Marion), FL-A1A, St. Augustine, ☏ +1 904 829-6506. A colonial stronghold in the Spanish city of St. Augustine, the famous and well-preserved fort played a minor role in the Seminole Wars. It was known as Fort Marion following its takeover by the U.S. and functioned as a prison for captured warriors during the Second Seminole War. Seminole Chief Osceola was captured during peace negotiations at Fort Peyton and briefly imprisoned at the Castillo in the fall of 1837 before being transferred to Fort Moultrie in South Carolina. Later that year, a separate group of twenty Seminole prisoners managed to escape and reunite with the Seminole tribe on the Tomoka River.
- 5 Cruger-DePeyster Sugar Mill (New Smyrna Sugar Mill Ruins), 600 Mission Dr, New Smyrna Beach, ☏ +1 386 736-5953. Sunrise-sunset. This sugar mill and sawmill was established in 1830 and operated with slave labor. It was briefly captured by the Seminoles in December 1835 and burned, but the damage was less than at most sites due to the mill's coquina construction. The mill's operations were subsequently moved a few miles north to the Dunlawton Sugar Mill. Free.
- 6 Dade Battlefield, 7200 Battlefield Pkwy, Bushnell, ☏ +1 352 793-4781. 8AM-sunset. The site of a major defeat of American troops during the Second Seminole War in 1835. There is a reenactment every January. $3 per vehicle.
- 7 Dummett Sugar Mill Plantation, Old Dixie Hwy (on the east side of the highway, northwest of the Tomoka River). One wall remains from this sugar mill and rum distillery which utilized slave and tribal labor between 1825 and 1835, when it was abandoned due to the outbreak of the Second Seminole War. There are a few parking spaces on the side of the Old Dixie Hwy close to the ruins, which are surrounded by a fence. Free.
- 8 Dunlawton Plantation and Sugar Mill, 950 Old Sugar Mill Rd, Port Orange, [email protected]. 8AM-7PM. One of a number of plantations on the northeastern coast of the state that were captured by the Seminoles during the Second Seminole War. It had previously been run by American colonists during the Spanish period and had used African slaves; many of them were freed when Major Putnam's militia was defeated in battle. The plantation briefly resumed operations during the 1840s and 1850s, but (much later) was redeveloped as a theme park. There are extensive ruins still standing at the site.
- 9 Fort Barrancas, Taylor Rd, Pensacola, ☏ +1 850 934-2600. The first incarnation of the fort, which the Spanish called San Carlos de Austria, was built in 1698; it was rebuilt a century later by the Spanish as Fort Barrancas. The Americans took control of the fort during the War of 1812 and rebuilt it during the Second Seminole War. Unlike many of Florida's forts dating from the Seminole Wars, its reconstruction was completed in brick, leaving it as a bulwark of American power at a time when the Seminoles were capturing wooden forts. Fort Barrancas played an active role in conflict during the Civil War, but became outdated and was deactivated after World War II. Since 1980, it has been a public park with a visitor center on site.
- 10 Fort Chokonikla (Paynes Creek State Park), 888 Lake Branch Rd, Bowling Green, ☏ +1 863 375-4717. 8AM-sunset. The fort was built after the Second Seminole War but was abandoned due to widespread illness among the troops. It was erected near the former site of the Kennedy-Darling Trading Post, one of the few places where Americans and Seminoles could trade during the 19th century, because a rival Seminole tribe had burned it down. The fort vanished entirely after its abandonment, but both the fort (on a small scale) and the trading post have since been rebuilt for reenactments at Paynes Creek State Park. $3 per vehicle.
- 11 Fort Christmas, 1300 Fort Christmas Rd, Christmas, ☏ +1 407 254-9310, [email protected]. 9AM-4PM. The original wooden fort was built on Christmas Day of 1837 by a contingent of 2,000 U.S. troops and militiamen. Although abandoned after the Second Seminole War, a town (which is well preserved as a park) with farms and a schoolhouse developed near the fort. Fort Christmas was rebuilt in 1970s and opened to the public as an Orange County park.
- 12 Fort Clinch, 2601 Atlantic Ave, Fernandina Beach, ☏ +1 904 277-7274. 9AM-5PM. The most recent of several fortifications built to protect Cumberland Sound, Fort Clinch was built in 1847 following the Second Seminole War. Its namesake, General Duncan Clinch, was a slaveowner who had fought in both the First and Second Seminole Wars, risen to the rank of general, and led U.S. troops to victory at the Battle of Withlacoochee in 1835. The fort briefly came under Confederate control during the Civil War before returning to Union hands, but was rarely used after 1869. Due to its brick construction and preservation efforts, it survived intact and now operates as a living museum. $6 per vehicle.
- 13 Fort Cooper, 3100 S Old Floral City Rd, Inverness, ☏ +1 352 726-0315. 8AM-sunset. A state park with annual reenactments at the grounds once occupied by the fort. One of the fort's walls has since been rebuilt by park volunteers. A hiking trail, the Seminole Heritage Trail, features exhibits documenting the fort's involvement in the First and Second Seminole Wars. $3 per vehicle.
- 14 Fort Dallas, 404 NW 3rd St, Miami, ☏ +1 305 960-2920, [email protected]. 8AM-9PM. The limestone barracks from the original fort were taken in pieces to the north bank of the Miami River in the early 20th century along with the William Wagner House. The structures are today found within Lummus Park, Miami, not to be confused with the park of the same name in Miami Beach. It is one of the few Seminole War sites accessible via public transit, with both Metrobus and Metrorail serving the neighborhood close to the park.
- 15 Fort Foster, 15402 US-301 N, Thonotosassa, ☏ +1 813 688-9500. Originally constructed as Fort Alabama and destroyed, the new fort was built on the site during the Second Seminole War in December 1836. In early 1837, skirmishes took place at the fort between U.S. troops and the Seminoles, which resulted in a stalemate. Disease, however, forced the troops' abandonment of the fort, and its use was intermittent throughout the rest of the 1830s and 1840s. The fort was rebuilt in 1980 and turned into a park. It is opened on occasion for living history exhibits.
- 16 Fort King, 3925 E Fort King St, Ocala, ☏ +1 352 368-5547. Sunrise-sunset. The fort existed between the First and Second Seminole Wars. The Seminoles destroyed it in 1836, and although it was rebuilt, it was abandoned after the Second Seminole War. In 2017, the fort was rebuilt as a historic site and is open to the public. In 2022, a living history museum began operations at the fort.
- 17 Fort Mose (Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose), 15 Fort Mose Tr, St. Augustine, ☏ +1 904 823-2232. 9AM-5PM. The original fort was established in 1738 during the Spanish colonial era by people of African origin fleeing slavery in the American colonies. A soldier and fugitive slave of Gambian origin, Francisco Menéndez, was the head of the colony and developed a town around the fort for other fugitives. The fort was briefly taken by British forces in 1740 but in the Siege of Fort Mose, a combined force of Spanish, freedmen, and Seminole forces recaptured it. Although restored in 1752, Fort Mose was ultimately abandoned after the Spanish lost control of Florida in 1763 (with most inhabitants, including Menéndez, moving to Cuba). It was later occupied by American settlers before being destroyed by a combined force of Spanish and tribal militias in 1812, shortly before the First Seminole War. Following archaeological digs at the location of the former fort, a new wooden fort was constructed based on the original appearance of the site, and reenactments are performed the first Saturday of each month. There is a visitor center on site, which has been preserved as a state park. Free.
- 18 Fort San Marcos de Apalache (Fort Ward), 148 Old Fort Rd, St. Marks, ☏ +1 850 925-6216. Th-M 9AM-5PM. Not to be confused with the Castillo de San Marcos in St. Augustine, Fort San Marcos was built out of stone by the Spanish in the 18th century. American troops under the command of General Jackson took control of the fort during the First Seminole War. Jackson detained and executed two British subjects, Alexander Arbuthnot and Robert Ambrister, at the fort upon capturing it, leading to an international incident between the U.S., Britain, and Spain. The ruins of the fort have been turned into a state park. Free admission; $2 per person to enter the museum.
- 19 Haulover Canal (Fort Ann's), Courtenay Pkwy, Titusville. Before the construction of the canal in 1852, the haulover was a narrow isthmus across which native tribespeople hauled their canoes to get from the Indian River to Mosquito Lagoon. Fort Ann's was established at the haulover during the Second Seminole War to protect the area from raids. While the fort no longer exists, it is marked by a plaque. After the war, the Haulover Canal was dug out of coquina by local slaves and then re-dug thirty years later by a canal company.
- 20 Mala Compra Plantation. The plantation was owned and operated by a Spanish-American planter for twenty years before it was occupied by troops and then destroyed by the Seminoles during the Second Seminole War. Little remains of the structure, which is now an archaeological site and is under an enclosure.
- 21 Okeechobee Battlefield, 3500 SE 38th Ave, Okeechobee, ☏ +1 863 462-5360. W-Su 8AM-5PM. Annual reenactments take place at the site of the Battle of Lake Okeechobee. The battle, fought in late 1837, was a victory for the Seminoles, who were outnumbered almost three to one, and forced the American troops back to Tampa. Free.
- 22 Old Fort Pierce Park, 800 S Indian River Dr. The fort was established in 1838 and used during the Second Seminole War. Its commander, militia colonel Benjamin Pierce, was the brother of Franklin Pierce, and one of the troops stationed at the site was William Sherman, later a general during the American Civil War. All that remains at the site is an earth mound built by the Ais tribe between 1000 and 1500.
- 23 Payne's Prairie (Paynes Prairie Preserve State Park), 100 Savannah Blvd, Micanopy, ☏ +1 352 466-3397. 8AM-sunset. One of the few open prairies in Florida, the massive La Chua Cattle Ranch was established by Spanish colonists during the 17th century. Due to French and tribal raids, it was abandoned in the early 1700s, and the prairie came under the control of the Alachua Seminoles, led by Chief Ahaya. The Seminoles established the settlements of Cuscowilla and Payne's Town in the region and grazed cattle across the prairie before militiamen from Tennessee captured the territory in 1813. Two forts, Fort Tarver and Fort Crane, were temporarily established on the prairie during the Second Seminole War but are no longer standing. A visitor center at the state park contains an exhibit detailing the history of the prairie. $6 per vehicle.
- 24 Prospect Bluff Historic Sites (Fort Gadsden), Apalachicola National Forest. The fort here was originally inhabited by the Creek tribe and fugitive slaves, but American troops took control after the War of 1812 and it became Fort Gadsden, which was used as a base for General Jackson's operations in the First Seminole War. The fort is no longer standing, but some war cannons remain, as do the earthworks that constituted the fort's foundation.
Museums
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- 25 Ah-Tah-Thi-Ki Museum, 34725 West Boundary Road, Big Cypress Seminole Indian Reservation, ☏ +1 877 902 1113, [email protected]. 9AM-5PM. Living museum documenting the history of the Seminole tribe in Florida. A museum building and associated website store tribal archives, oral histories, and collections of historical items, although not all of these exhibits are available to non-members of the tribe. There is a boardwalk to the cypress dome near the museum which is open 9 AM-4 PM daily.
- 26 Collier Museum at Government Center, 3331 Tamiami Tr E, Naples, ☏ +1 239 252-8476. Tu-Sa 9AM-4PM. Focuses on the history of South Florida with a particular focus on indigenous culture, the Seminoles, and 19th-century settlement.
- 27 Immokalee Pioneer Museum at Roberts Ranch, 1215 Roberts Ave W, Immokalee, ☏ +1 239 252-2611. Tu-Sa 9AM-4PM. Run by the same organization as the Collier County Museum, this living history museum documents the history of settlement of the town of Immokalee through Roberts Ranch, which operated c. 1900, after the Seminole Wars. A cattle drive takes place each March.
- 28 Museum of Florida History, 500 S Bronough St, Tallahassee, ☏ +1 850 245-6400, [email protected]. The museum has a collection of military artifacts from various wars including the Seminole Wars, the American Civil War, and the World Wars. Other exhibits are dedicated to the overall history of the state's colonization from the early 16th century through to American settlement during the 19th century.
- 29 Tampa Bay History Center, 801 Water St, Tampa, ☏ +1 813 228-0097, [email protected]. 10AM-5PM. History museum on the waterfront in Tampa, which was an important base for American troops during the Second Seminole War. There is an extensive library and museum of maps onsite, the Touchton Map Library.
See also
[edit]- Indigenous cultures of North America — other tribes throughout the North American continent. Several indigenous tribes inhabited the Florida Peninsula prior to the Seminoles and constructed earth mounds across the state
- Trail of Tears — the Seminole Tribe was one of several tribes that was forced to relocate to Oklahoma, and many died following this route
- Underground Railroad — the Spanish and Seminoles' willingness to accept escaped slaves from the American South was a precursor to the ultimately much larger network allowing African-American slaves to escape north